Philosophy

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Philosophy involves general and rational inquiry into questions and ideas that fall outside religion and science. As a field of study it helps to make sense of general and fundamental conditions concerning human matters such as existence, mind & body, values, truth, knowledge and more. This lesson will provide a very general introduction to philosophy and its contributions to understanding what it means to be human. 

Lesson Objectives 
  • define philosophy
  • recognize European and non-European philosophical approaches
  • evaluate a philosophical perspective and its applicability to everyday life
  • develop a personal philosophy about what it means to be human
What is Philosophy?

‘Philo’ means love, and ‘sophia’ means wisdom. Therefore, philosophy is the ‘love of wisdom.’ In the ancient Greek tradition, philosophy was the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, and it included a wide range of areas such as the arts, sciences and religion. Today, philosophy is a field of study outside of religion and science, and it seeks to address existential and reflective problems that are unsolved through experimentation and doctrine.

Philosophy is the systematic study of ideas and issues, a reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths, a quest for a comprehensive understanding of the world, a study of principles of conduct, and much more. Every domain of human experience raises questions to which its techniques and theories apply, and its methods may be used in the study of any subject or the pursuit of any vocation. Indeed, philosophy is in a sense inescapable: life confronts every thoughtful person with some philosophical questions, and nearly everyone is guided by philosophical assumptions, even if unconsciously. One need not be unprepared. “

“A Brief Guide for Undergraduates” by the American Philosophical Association

Philosophy has contributed some of the most important and influential ideas shaping politics, law, physics, math, science and other academic fields that generate effects on human life. Philosophy also provides creative ways of thinking and contemplating phenomena that can be difficult to grasp such as equality, justice, the meaning of life, death and dying, love, beauty, right & wrong, and more.

At the same time, however, philosophy has also yielded concepts that have been disproven, undermined, or determined erroneous. Watch the Tedtalk video below to learn about the variety ideas set forth by Plato, one of the most important philosophers in the European tradition, that are no longer in favor.

Although Plato was off the mark on quite a few ideas, philosophy, like science, is based on the critical practice of arguing, contesting, and disputing philosophical ideas and concepts. This makes philosophy a dynamic and ever-changing field of practice that provides thinkers with tools and frameworks to approach inquiries into the state and condition of being human.

Categorizing Philosophical Approaches

As an academic discipline and field of study, contemporary approaches to philosophy covers an expansive range of topics, problems, ideas and themes. As a result, the field is often organized into several different categories. The largest division recognized in the United States and in Europe is based on a Euro-centric organization of geographic variations: Eastern Philosophy (non-European) and Western Philosophy (European.)  Far from being isolated, however, philosophical approaches have spread thousands of miles over thousands and years through trade, migration and cultural exchanges between Asia, Africa, Europe and eventually the Americas. There has always been interplay between ‘east and west,’ and the geographic categories within the field of philosophy simply serve to help organize a massive body of numerous  philosophical approaches rather than a concrete divide between distinctively different ways of thinking. 

Western Philosophy
Image result for branches of philosophy

Western philosophy is a term used to refer to philosophical thought and practice tied to European philosophers, beginning with the Greek Classical period that begins with the pre-Socratics such as Thales (7th century BCE), Pythagoras (6th-5th century BCE), and Classical Greek philosophers such as Plato (5th-4th century BCE), Aristotle (4th century BCE) and Socrates (5th-4th century BCE). Through several centuries, European philosophies spread throughout the world as European empires colonized areas outside of Europe. As a result, new philosophical developments that draw from or build upon European philosophies are also referred to as Western philosophy even if they emerge outside of Europe. The chart below presents different ‘branches’ of Western philosophy and their particular approach, perspective, or problem.

EpistemologyEpistemology is the philosophical study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge. The term is derived from the Greek epistēmē (“knowledge”) and logos (“reason”), and the field is sometimes referred to as the theory of knowledge. Epistemology has a long history within Western philosophy, beginning with the ancient Greeks and continuing to the present. Along with metaphysics, logic, and ethics, it is one of the four main branches of philosophy.
EthicsEthics is a branch of philosophy that confronts questions regarding morality and character. It seeks to address ideas such as ‘right and wrong’, ‘good and evil,’ justice, and other aspects of human character and nature. Ethics provides philosophical and analytical tools to approach controversial topics such as abortion, the death penalty, the use of violence, and other subjects difficult to discuss yet need to be addressed.
LogicLogic is the study of correct reasoning, especially as it involves the drawing of inferences.
AestheticsAesthetics is the study of beauty and taste. It is closely related to the philosophy of art, which is concerned with the nature of art and the concepts in terms of which individual works of art are interpreted and evaluated.
MetaphysicsMetaphysics is a branch of philosophy emerging in antiquity and the Middle Ages with topics that addressed the first causes of things and the nature of being. In post-medieval philosophy, however, many other topics came to be included under the heading “metaphysics.” 
SciencePhilosophy of science is the study, from a philosophical perspective, of the elements of scientific inquiry. It addresses metaphysical, epistemological, and ethical issues related to the practice and goals of modern science.
ReligionPhilosophy of religion is concerned with the philosophical appraisal of human religious attitudes and of the real or imaginary objects of those attitudes, God or the gods. The philosophy of religion is an integral part of philosophy as it embraces central issues regarding the nature and extent of human knowledge, the ultimate character of reality, and the foundations of morality.
PoliticsPhilosophy of politics, also called jurisprudence, is a branch of philosophy that investigates the nature of politics and laws, especially in its relation to human values, attitudes, practices, and political communities. Traditionally, philosophy of politics begins by articulating and defending propositions that are general and abstract—i.e., that are true not of a specific legal system at a particular time (e.g., the United Kingdom in 1900) but of all legal systems in the present or perhaps of all laws at all times. Philosophy of law often aims to distinguish law from other systems of norms, such as morality.
Continental Philosophy

Within Western philosophy, the term Continental Philosophy refers to philosophical traditions that emerged from mainland Europe during the 19th and 20th centuries. Continental philosophy includes phenomenology, existentialism, hermeneutics, structuralism, post-structuralism, deconstruction, French feminism, German Idealism and critical theory. Continental philosophy argues that conditions and/or experiences are determined at least partly by factors such as context, space and time, language, culture, and/or history. For example, the previous lesson on Truth and Perspective presented continental philosophical approaches such as Neitzsche’s context-based perspectivism and Foucault’s historical framework on the relationship between truth and power. Critical inquiry emerging from continental philosophical trends stimulated the development of contemporary theoretical approaches such as Critical Race Theory (CRT), which investigates the experiences of race and racism within social, historical and legal contexts. The video below breaks down critical race theory and the recent political controversy surrounding CRT.

Eastern, or Non-Western, Philosophy

Eastern Philosophy is a generalized term that primarily refers to philosophical approaches that originated outside of Europe. Unlike European, or Western philosophies, many Eastern philosophies emerge from expansive religious traditions that include philosophical elements within religious practice that date as far back as 5,000 years ago. Similar to Western philosophies, most Eastern philosophies attempt to provide answers to complex questions centered on topics such as existence, reality and ethics; yet many Eastern philosophies also provide frameworks for life, social interactions, ways of being and relationships with the divine or supernatural. The list below provides a few examples of eastern philosophical traditions.

Hindu PhilosophyHindu philosophy emerged in ancient India, and it consists of at least 15 different schools of thought. For example, the Pramāṇa school discusses the means by which human beings can gain accurate knowledge. The Samkhya school espouses dualism between consciousness and matter. The Yoga school accepts Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is considered theistic because it accepts the concept of personal god. Many Hindu schools accept the Vedas as an authoritative text. Yet, several other traditions called called nāstika  (non-orthodox) reject the Vedas such as Buddhism, Jainism, Cārvāka, Ājīvika, and others
Buddhist PhilosophyEmerging from the Hindu tradition in India, Buddhist philosophies are centered on the teaching of the Buddha that combine philosophical reasoning and meditation to answer questions about life, death and spiritual liberation. There are a variety of different schools, and Buddhist philosophers in India and throughout Asia cover topics as varied as phenomenology, ethics, epistemology, logic, and philosophy of time.
ConfucianismConficianism is a system of philosophical and ethical teachings founded by Confucius and developed by Mencius. It is considered a humanistic philosophy that has a particular emphasis on the importance of the family and social harmony, rather than on an otherworldly source of spiritual values. Ordinary activities of human life, especially human relationships, are considred a manifestation of the sacred and an expression of humanity’s moral nature (xìng 性), which is anchored in Heaven (Tiān 天).
DaoismDaoism (also spelled Taoism,) considerd Tao as the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists. The philosophy teaches about the various disciplines for achieving “perfection” by becoming one with the unplanned rhythms of the universe, called “the way” or “Tao”. Taoist ethics vary depending on the particular school, but they generally emphasize wu wei (action without intention), naturalness, simplicity, spontaneity and the ‘Three Treasures’: compassion, frugality, and humility.
JainismJainism shares concepts with Hinduism and Buddhism, and according to Jain philosophy, the universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls (jīva), non-sentient substance or matter (pudgala), principle of motion (dharma), the principle of rest (adharma), space (ākāśa) and time (kāla). Tattva connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy, and is the framework for salvation. The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism.
ShintōThe word Shintō literally means “the way of kami” (generally sacred or divine power, specifically the various gods or deities). The theistic philosophy has no founder, no official texts, and no fixed dogmas. Some view Shinto as a “way” consisting of customs and traditions centered on ritual, communal life based on kami worship.
SikhismSikhism was established by Guru Nanak (1469–1539) and subsequently led by a succession of nine other Gurus. Guru Nanak taught that living an active, creative, and practical life of truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity is above metaphysical truth, and that the ideal person establishes union with God, knows God’s Will, and carries out that Will”.

A comparison of the two charts above shows that both geographical east and west philosophical categories present a variety of different approaches aimed to make sense of general and fundamental conditions concerning human matters such as existence, mind & body, values, truth, knowledge and more. The rap video below provides a comical exchange between the two different traditions.

(Warning: The video below contains profanity, sexually explicit language, and adult content. The goal of this video is to show contemporary relevance of ancient philosophy. Viewing or listening to this video is entirely optional and is not required for this course.)

Outside the East-West Divide

In addition to Eastern and Western geographical divisions, it is also important to note the wide variety of old and new philosophical approaches outside the East-West divide. In his three-volume book, Black Athena: the Afro-Asiatic Roots of Classical Civilization (1987), Martin Bernal argues that classical European philosophy owes its origins to earlier Egyptian philosophers; and this ties the origins of European philosophy to Africa. He points out that some of the oldest philosophical texts were produced in Ancient Egypt (Kemet) from 2200 to 1000 BCE. One of the earliest known African philosophers was Ptahhotep. The ancient Greeks acknowledged the Egyptian philosophers in the 5th century BCE when Isocrates declared that earliest Greek thinkers traveled to Egypt to seek knowledge; one of them Pythagoras of Samos who “was first to bring to the Greeks all philosophy.” New research now shows that “the founding Greek word philosophos, lover of wisdom, is itself a borrowing from and translation of the Egyptian concept mer-rekh (mr-rḫ) which literally means “lover of wisdom,” or knowledge.”

Today, the term Africana philosophy refers to the philosophical perspectives developed by African people and people of African descent. In the early and mid-twentieth century, the enslavement of African people and European colonization of Africa contributed to the development of a distinct modern African political philosophy centered on questions about freedom, equality, justice and rights. Contemporary African philosophers contribte to various academic fields within philosophy such as metaphysics, epistemology, moral philosophy, and political philosophy.

Similarly, philosophical developments in Russia during the turnof the 20th centry questioned social ethics and political philosophy which included ideas about the relationship between individuals and the State, work, civil duty, and rights. Notable Russian philosophers include Mikhail Bakunin, the father of anarchism, and his legacy on workers rights, and the relationship between God and the State. Leo Tolstoy not only produced fictional parables with philosophical questions and lessons, “tolstoism” is considered a Russian version of Christian evangelism. Nikolai Berdiaev was a religious existentialist, a philosopher of personality and freedom whose basic concepts are “nothingness” and “creativity.” Vladimir Lenin is considered the father of Soviet “dialectical materialism.” Mikhail Bakhtin, the theoretician of the dialogue, polyphony, and carnival.

Applied Philosophy in the Humanities
Process based on ‘Ockham’s Razor’: with all things equal, the simplest solution is the best.

The field of philosophy is ancient, vast and deep; and this makes it difficult to provide a comprehensive introduction in a single lesson. Yet it is useful to consider the ways that philosophical perspectives can bear upon the practical issues of everyday life. Applied philosophy targets matters of practical concern by integrating philosophical tools into discussion in a way that puts theory into practice in order to confront societal problems and issues related to business, education, art, ,the environment, government, health care, law, psychology, science and more. Philosophy can provide frameworks to examine ethical dilemmas and professional or personal challenges in private and public domains. In this way, studying philosophy and its applicability to life ca help us develop a better understanding of what it means to be human.

References and Resources

To learn more about philosophy in the humanities, explore the links below.

For Discussion in Canvas

Research a philosophical perspective using one of the resources listed in the list above. Write a brief (approximately 100-200 words) synopsis of the perspective for your classmates (cite your source), and evaluate how the philosophical perspective can be applied to everyday life. Respond to at least two posts by your classmates by comparing your selected philosophies.

For Your Journal Expression

Describe your personal philosophy on a particular topic, problem or condition in an essay (approximately 500 words.) Your philosophy can be an observation, counsel on how to be and live, a statement about humanity, and/or a position on a particular problem. Feel free to build on a philosophical perspective introduced in this lesson or elsewhere.

Note: The creative activity for the Religion lesson will provide an opportunity to symbolically represent the messages and meanings in your personal philosophy.

After completing the discussion and expression, go to the Letterwriting lesson.